Point out how single women (unaccompanied girl child or widow or unmarried single women) feature in selected refugee literature sent to you and comment whether they form a distinct category of victims.

Sreyashi Chowdhury

The Geneva Convention definition of refugee has recently come under fire from feminists for it’s neglect of gender as a critical consideration in refugee determination. By portraying as universal that which is in fact a male paradigm, it is argued, women refugees face rejection of their claims because their experiences of persecution go unrecognized .However as B.S Chimni points out in his book International Refugee Law – A Reader , feminists complaints go far beyond the language of the definition to the root of what gender based claims to persecution would look like were it possible to make them. Doreen Indra and others call for definition of persecution which acknowledges the feminist theory of social bifurcation. That society is divided into public and private spheres of activity, that the public sphere is male dominated and women are relegated to the private sphere. In other words women have less of a chance of obtaining refugee status as the key criteria for being a refugee are primarily drawn from the realm of public life, which in many societies, is still dominated by men. The Executive Committee of UNHCR has encouraged the states to consider women who are subjected to particular human rights violations to be covered under the “social group” but it is left to the discretion of countries to follow these recommendations.  

The sheer number of women among the refugee population portrays that it is a gendered issue, both historical and current evidence bore testimony to that.Ritu Menon says that during the Partition of India , the government divided “single women” into 2 categories : dislocated, impoverished and widowed women and abducted women.Women belonging to both groups had lost their male relatives and the state had taken over the responsibility of protection .Widows within the Hindu caste system faced many discriminatory customs, widowhood was supposed to be form of ill fate. But as wife of martyrs Hindu refugee widows were not required to follow any of the customs. But it has to be remembered that these widows were single women and their sexuality related to the honour of the nation .To maintain that honour it became essential to keep these women under surveillance .The state urged that they be given training so that they may be economically self sufficient .But of course such training was largely gendered in nature .However the most underprivileged of the group of widows could not often access state aid.The abducted women were seen as symbols of community and were forcibly repatriated.It is clear that women did not have any political voice in the process of partition,division and resettlement.

No doubt on the whole single women refugees faced protection problems, but as Bolan Gangopadhyay shows that there were  some institutions which came forward to make these women ,who were the victims of Partition economically self reliant by training them in different types of crafts . Notable among them were Ananda Ashram, Nari Seva Sangha,Uday Villa and All Bengal Women’s Home. But it was only Uday Villa,which distinguished itself by providing training and rehabilitation to a large number of displaced single women. Subsequently it became the largest rehabilitation centre in the eastern zone.

Ethnic tensions between Tamil minority and Simha majority haveled to several waves of refugees from SriLanka ,largely women with their dependents. Initially the state government provided these refugees with shelter and ration but after Rajiv Gandhi’s assassination the politicians began to shun the refugees.The government turned a blind eye when touts came to recruit young women from the refugee camps in Tamilnadu to work as maids in Middle East. Most of these women were then smuggled out of India and sent to the Gulf countries. Often they were badly abused.Even when the situation is not so extreme it is still traumatic for young women.When separated from other members of their family they are vulnerable to sexual abuse. The camps are not conducive for personal safety of women as they enjoy no privacy. But as Paula Banerjee portrays what is more worrying is that without any institutional support women become vulnerable to human traffickers and more lives get wrecked everyday.

From a reading of the articles and books given to us it is clear that single refugee women do form a distinct category of victims. They often face sexual violence prior to or during their flight and in some cases during repatriation operations. The perpetrators of these sexual abuse include military personnel,immigration personnel and rival ethnic groups. Even residing in refugee camp can magnify their problems that refugee women face. Women are targeted when they leave the camp to use the facilities which may be located away from the camp. Many refugee women, particularly those in urban context have had to adopt not only new familial roles but also new social and economic responsibilities. Lacking an effective male support these single women are sometimes forced to marry in order to secure a male protector and provider.

Despite the aforementioned difficulties as the literature portrays single refugee women are not powerless victims. “Forced by changing circumstances, they have assumed new and unfamiliar roles  even in environments and communities that are characterized by an opposition to women’s independence and self assertion and have a very low degree of tolerance for non conformity.”(Gaim Kibreab,Eritrean Women Refugees in Khartoum,Sudan,1970-1990,Journal of Refugee Studies )

Point out how single women (unaccompanied girl child / widow / unmarried single women) feature in selected refugee literature sent to you and comment whether they form a distinct category of victims.

Parveen Abdul Gaffar

Women have been found to be the largest category of persons affected by displacement. As statistics have shown, close to 80% of the displaced in any situation are women and children. While it is recognized that the displaced are not homogenous groups and gender categorizations not stable it is clear that certain unique features in the experience that specifically single women under go unites them as one group.

Within a patriarchal society the plight of single women is of significance as they are without the thought to be essential “man” in their life and are therefore considered more vulnerable and helpless. This view is reflected specifically in the narratives on post partition India, which highlight the special focus given to the care of single women. Ashrams were set up and the state took upon itself the role of custodian and guardian of these women. The state was responsible for making these women economically independent and providing them with security and relief measures. It is interesting to note that the state was even responsible for finding suitable partners for marriage! The state is featured as the self appointed “paternal” figure and the women a group that could not have survived without the “male figure”.

Despite the fact that women make up the largest number in refugee camps, it is noted that the relief provided is not sensitive to their needs. It has been highlighted that refugee camp structures do not often take in to consideration the security and privacy needs of women and as a result much abuse of women is reported to take place within camps. Single women are seen to be especially placed in a vulnerable situation within camps due to the lack of security and proper relief measures. It is stated that many are forced to at times use sex as a means of obtaining favours to supplement the relief provided. They are also vulnerable to trafficking as depicted in the narrative on the Rohingya refugees. These women who are forcibly taken are sold in to sexual slavery in the destination places. Treated as a commodity their pricing is based on their beauty, virginity and level of education etc.

The literature also highlight the tough situation that displaced single women often face in having not only to adapt to new circumstances but also ensure that they remain within accepted social boundaries of their communities. In the case of widows in India, despite the fact that they are in a displaced situation they cannot break traditions and for example live with their daughters, as that would not have been acceptable in society at large. Similar when it comes to working, single women, who are often desperate for a source of income, have to limit their choice of employment to those that befit their  “class” in spite of the urgency of the situation.  Among Afghan refugees it is stated that community customs do not allow young women to leave the house for any form of employment making the situation indeed difficult for those who may be sole breadwinners for the family. 

In relation to obtaining asylum too single women are in a disadvantaged position, as the system does not cater to their needs or circumstances. It is the male refugee who is given preference and priority in the application process. This forces the single female refugee to often resort to entering non-consensual relationships for the sake of asylum and protection.  While this is at times helpful in the process of seeking asylum, there have also been situations where women have lost the own chances due to the weak claims of the husband whom they married out of necessity.

Gender based violence such as rape and other forms of sexual abuse are perpetrated on a mass scale against women as it has been widely recognized as an effective weapon of war.  In the narrative on Rohingya refugees it is clear that sexual attacks on young girls was a tactic to chase people from the area. Attack on women hits at the core of patriarchal society as the protection of women’s honour is given prominence among many communities and nation. This very fact is presented as the reason behind many girls being killed off before the enemy could get at them during the period of partition violence between India and Pakistan. Women who were thus killed were referred to as “martyrs” by the men as they sacrificed their lives in order to protect the honour of the community. 

As identified in many of the texts, displacement disempowers women as it takes away their agency. However it is necessary to realize that it is often not her “gender” that makes her disempowered but rather the social definition of her “gender” and the existing social structure around her that places her in this vulnerable position. In most instances the single woman is not given an opportunity to voice her opinion. Matters are often decided for her by the “men” in her life, which in the case of single women is the state.

At the same time displacement also becomes an opportunity for women to assert themselves, break the restrictive nature of traditional society and venture in to new fields of life. This has been especially true with regard to single women. In a society where a widow is treated as inauspicious, helpless and of no use to society, many have risen to the challenge faced and made the best use of the opportunities provided to them. Many single women have also taken up non-traditional roles and set an example in many instances of rising above all odds and restrictive social practices. Displacement has thus opened up new spaces for them.

Yes, single women can be categorized as a distinct group of “victims” based on the fact that they are victimized by the same category of persons and similar circumstances. However, keeping in mind that labeling them as “victims” can lead to them being marginalized once again and treated as helpless subjects, I would prefer the situation faced by displaced single women referred to as a dimension of displacement and identified as a dimension that needs greater focus within the whole discourse of displacement.