Term Paper for Module A 2004

Terms paper by Dhamen Thinbaijam

Force migration and displacement occurring in a country or state in the present world in most of the case has a closed relation with the racism. This can be clearly seen if one go deep into the origin of the conflicts that lead to the adding of fuel influencing the power, the majority can used force to displaced their own fellow being to become displace person. 

Since the very beginning of the human being has been experiencing displacement of their dwelling centre by certain forces, may be natural or man made. In the early era of human civilization men experience force displacement and force migration from one place to another due to natural disaster like heavy rainfall, storm, flood etc. Displacement of such type is still continuing even the world of human civilization seems to crossed its limit with the advancement of scientific exploration of the human being. Despite the people of this world proud of their civilization claiming that its civilization reached its zenith point, they could not face or control mass scale force displacement cause by natural disaster.

In such a situation where all the living being of this earth facing natural displacement, still the people of the world is facing force displacement among themselves which is the biggest crime committed by human civilization against the human being.

In the early history of the world one country invaded another only to show their ruler’s power among other rulers and draining the wealth. Their invasion is also related with the expansion of their area of control. At that time people were displaced as a consequent of war.

The trench of displacement by any reasons were experiencing through the whole journey of human civilization. However the nature of displacement has been changing with the continue process of human civilization. That is, the nature of displacement is changing with the changing of political structure which is also changing with time. In the prehistoric period men used to leave in the caves and individual struggle to life is the motto of being born as a living being. In due course of time men started living in a collectively by making groups which show the seed of men becoming a social animal.

As these men started living in different society, the moving of people in groups for the survival in different direction started.

In same manner, different groups of people migrated in different parts of the world and assimilated each other or settle side by side.

When people leave in groups in a society they were under one leadership. Then after a state or a country was formed by collection of different groups, in the early period it was headed by a king or a ruler as per customs of a certain state or country. In due course of time, after a long history of revolution, most of the countries or states are rule by an elected person or the person agreed by the majority of people.

In making a country or a state there arises two groups of people, one in fever of the making and another against the emersion of their state with the other in making a larger state or a country, leading to large scale conflict among its people.

When this situation arrive the idea of racism among the people will started arising. Unable to settle the rising conflict from the question of racism, the people belonging to the larger race will try to influence the smaller groups to merge them to their race. On the other hand the smaller groups will try to protect their original race. Once the conflict started it will exist between the two conflicting races forever and the chance of creating violence will remain high all the time.

As the conflict had started then the smaller race will start searching for asylum to the nearest races or the same race residing in the neigbhouring countries or states as the dislike or fear of the smaller race increase day by day.

On the other hand the conflicting larger race will not want to have another race having good relation with the race in conflict with them. And there will be an internal conflict with as the former will try at there best level to interfere to the internal matter of the two races having good relations. By doing such the entire population will be under xenophobia.     

In short the root cause of large scale force migration occurring presently in different parts of the world if one look with delve into the origin is arises out of the racism. The idea of racism spread among the populace has been one of the most important factors for creating conflict among the people having different identity and culture. This conflict is the main root for the creating of immigration, and xenophobia among the populace having no safety in the land of their origin. This also led to the force migration of the people when the internal conflict brushed out like a volcano all of a sudden.

Racism is the one among the various reasons of force displacement and migration can well be understood with the following instances.

In the hill areas of Manipur where different ethnics tribes habitant since time immemorial, large scale force displacement was suddenly broke out among the tribes based on the racism and there origin in the early period of nineteen nineties. In actual sense the main reason for the large scale displacement and migration broken out from the conflict arises among the insurgent groups. As these insurgent groups are founded base on the ethnic groups habitant at the hill areas of the state. It may be said that every ethnic groups has one armed outfit which themselves claim to be came out to bring revolution to the state.

In the meantime the armed outfits belonging to the large ethnic group wanted to amalgam the smaller groups for a greater groups based on the similarity of race and its origin. They first try to draw their attention by explaining their closed relationship on their race for building up a nationalism idea.

On the other hand by the frequent insistence to amalgam them for a larger group, these smaller groups born an idea to their mind for searching their origin of race. This led to the finding of similar race spreading in different direction and these people habitants in the different corner of the state wanted to settle together. This idea led to the feeling of irritation to the formerly habitants groups nearby different groups.

In order to fulfilled their wish this armed ethnic based insurgent groups started various warfare to turn out them from their residing places. They forcibly imposed taxes of different kind which will be hard to provide. They were forced to leave place if fell to provide the same. 

In their long tortured both mentally and physically the smaller tribes had to take asylum to their closure ethnic groups having closed relationship with them from the very beginning.

After along process of internal mobilization among these groups, there emerged definite structure for time being which apparently seems to be lasted for all time.

The so called ethnic class which had occurred in the hill areas of Manipur between the naga and kuki tribes is the outcome of long process of its leaders trying to woo the smaller tribes to amalgam with them in the hope of building nationalism.

While trying to fulfill their desire and to clear off any hurdled standing on the way to build nationalism the majority group started attacking to the groups having bad relation with them, leading to the displacement from their dwelling places.

After the clash between the two major tribes seems to be closed down, another clash between two tribes closure to each other arises in the kuki-chin tribes. Although it could not be openly declared that the conflict between this two tribes has been created when the question of majority on the leaderships came up. The kukis claim themselves to be the majority and their claim had made dissatisfied to the paite (zomi) tribes resulted again in the large scale force migration and displacement in the Churachandpur district of Manipur during the year 1997-98 and lasted for nearly four year.

The displacement and migration of people in this district is within the district while displacement of naga- kuki is in both  inter and intra district.

Term Paper by Shanti Nandana Wijesinghe

The key words in the title of the course- migration, racism, immigration and xenophobia are interrelated and mutually interdependent concepts which in turn influenced each other.  The concepts of migration and immigration lead to cause the currents of racism and xenophobia and in turn, the currents of racism and xenophobia would direct the movements of immigration and migration. The main objectives of this paper is to connect the four key words– forced migration, racism, immigration, and xenophobia and also to show how the syllabus and the reading material of the course integrate these into an orientation course on forced migration.

One of the main themes of the course is forced migration that refers to the movements of refugees and internally displaced people as well as people placed by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects. In the reading materials of the course, the different types of forced migration are mentioned such as conflict, development and disaster-induced displacements. There are large numbers of people who are forced to flee their homes in most of regions in the world due to armed conflict including civil war, generalized violence, race, religion, political opinion or social group. Some of these people may seek asylum under international law whereas others remain anonymous because of fear. Development induced displaced people who are compelled to move as result of policies and projects implemented to enhance ‘development’ e.g.; large scale infrastructure projects, such as dames, roads, ports, airports, deforestations and the introduction of conservation parks. The category of disaster-induced displacement includes people displaced as a result of (1) natural disasters such as floods, landslides, earthquakes, volcanoes, (2) enviournmental change; deforestation, land degradation, global worming and (3) human-made disasters like  industrial accidents, radioactivity.  

Different types of forced migrants are also detailed; refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced persons, development displaces, environmental and disaster displaces, smuggle people and trafficked people in the text books as well as in the compendium. The word refugee has a long history of usage to describe certain groups in specific and non specific terms. According to United Nations Convention(1951) (the article 1 of the convention), a refugee defines  as a person who resides out side his or her country of nationality and also unwilling to return because of fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality and a membership in a political and social group or opinion. Asylum seekers are people who have moved across international borders looking for protection under the refugee convention. IDPs identifies as persons who have been forced to flee their homes as result of armed conflict, systematic violence, human rights, natural or man- made disasters. Development displaces include those who move as a result of large scale development projects. This is the largest cause of contemporary global displacement. Environment and disaster displaces refers to environmental refugees and disaster refugees those who displaced by environments and disasters. Smuggled migrants are moved illegally and they are partners of commercial transaction. Trafficked people those who are moved by coercion for the purposes of exploitation.   

Demographers, historians, and sociologist have developed the concept of migration with a broad meaning. These academic analyses are very useful in understanding the nature, varieties, and result of migration. Terminologies such as career migration, chain migration, circular migration, emigration, forced migration, global migration, immigration, internal migration, local migration, seasonal migration, and repatriation have been used in the field of migration studies and the second annual winter course on forced migration, immigration, racism and xenophobia has coved some of these aspects of migration in the course materials. The compendium on distance education material for the course contains articles connected to the areas of migration. International Refugee Law (2000) by BS Chimini has also covered large number of topics like international migration (page 94) permanent migrants and asylum, displaced persons and low of migrants. Emigration, repatriation process, Burmese, Chakma and Sri Lankan refugees, asylum seekers acts are mentioned and detailed in Refugees and the State ( Samaddar 2003). The migratory movements in South Asia are also mentioned in these reading materials. As a whole, the various level of explanation; the individual, the familial, and the structural-institutional patterns on migration are detailed in the reading materials.

Racism is one kinds of complicated concepts in literature which refers, (according to International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination adopted in 1965)  ´any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, decent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life`( http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_icerd.htm). Racism is much more extreme form of hatred of particular races. It is based on cultural and ideological concepts of biological superiority of the self over others. At present, the term is used, more broadly to apply to racially unfair and discriminatory beliefs, actions desires, projects, persons, groups, social institutions and practices.  Some specific types of racism, Afrocentracism (the belief that black African cultures were historically more powerful and influential than is widely believed), apartheid( Whites and Blacks were segregated in South Africa; and some refers to Israeli policies towards Palestinians as apartheid as well) , colorism ( racism among blacks based on skin tone), racial segregation, cast system( a system of social hierarchy among various social groups in South Asia, not always considered as racist) , Nazism( a historical form of political organization coupled with extreme racism), are discussed in the text books as well as in reading materials of the course. Moreover, the related concepts such as racial prejudice(which is pre-formed personal opinions on the basis of their race), racial discrimination(which is differences in treatment of people on the basis of characteristics which may be classified as racial), institutional racism( racial discrimination by governments, co operations or other large organizations with power to  influence the lives of individuals) , racial segregation are also explained in these reading materials of the course ‘forced migration’. The module B contains readings on gendered nature of forced migration, vulnerability, and justice and also in module D; there are some readings on forced migration as well.

Immigration defines as enhance of a person into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration are economic although religious political and personal factors may be very important. High rates of immigration are accompanied by militant and some times violent movements. The available two forms of immigration are legal and illegal immigration.  There are at least three components in legal immigration known as family, employment, and humanitarian. Family immigration program varies country to country while in some cases, these programs admit the spouses, parents and the miner children without any numerical limits. The employment based categories are complicated collections of preferences ranging from priority workers to unskilled workers and the humanitarian categories include refugees and asylum. Illegal migration occurs due to the special concern of war and terror. Most of migrants both legal and illegal attract jobs and family connections. One of negative aspects of immigration for natives is that it reduces wages or makes jobs more scare because immigration increases the supply of labour. In other word, immigration leads currents of job competition as well as unemployment in certain cases. 

The meaning of xenophobia, literally fear of other, is more about fear of the other within the self than hatred which means that hatred as opposed to fear of otherness; stranger, foreigners. However, there are major differences between hatred and fear because fear may lead to hatred but hatred may not lead to fear.  Xenophobia is rooted in the symbolic violence of every day life from where derives its primary motivations. Xenophobia is also linked to the symbolic violence in cultural worldviews from where it derives legitimation.  The primary motivational sources of xenophobia that derives from everyday life can be disappointment, anxiety, and uncertainty and cultural trauma. Hatred is also often used as a vague term for the concept. Xenophobia is shaped by the logic of exclusion- the separation of the ‘we’ from the ‘they’ and later on the ‘they’ becomes an enemy. Xenophobia results when the self loses its self identity and seeks in the other the reference points for its identity and it is rooted in the symbolic violence of every day life. Further more, radical nationalism is primarily driven by xenophobia and not by racism, or fascism, ethnocentrism. The module A of the winter course deals with nationalism, ethnicity, racism and xenophobia and as a whole the reading materials on these subjects are available in many other sources and disciplines such as sociology, anthropology and ethnicity.

Applying these concepts into a particular conflict situation may provide a useful apparatus in understanding some these concepts. The recent history of Afghanistan can be seen as war, civil unrest and terrorism which lead forced migration, racism, immigration and xenophobia. At the same time the conflicts in Afghanistan cause internal, regional and global tension not only for the security aspects of world order but also the other aspects of world order; economic, politics, development, and interrelations so on. The four phases of Afghan war: Soviet occupation (1978), Mujahidin’s civil war (1988), Taliban regime (1994) and the US intervention in 2001, has largely created many different forms of forced migration, racism, immigration and xenophobia. An estimated one million people were displaced within the country prior to the US attacks and 400 000 were in overcrowded camps. 4 million Afghans were internally stuck by January 2002 According to UNHCR reports; the estimated internally displaced person’s was 2.2 million by March 2002. More than 20 years after the Soviet Union invaded; Afghanistan remains the largest and single refugee group in the world. More than 3.5 million refugees reside in Pakistan and Iran alone, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. On the other hand, due to natural and environmental disasters, famine, chemical and development projects in Afghanistan, people are moved, displaced as refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced persons and environmental displaces.

The major ethnic groups in Afghanistan include Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. Pashtuns which include Taliban leadership comprise the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan and have dominated the government for centuries. They have received enough support and sympathy from the ethnic Pashtuns in Pakistan for many decades.

Since the fall of Taliban and re-emergence of warlords, Pashtuns were murdered or hammered and displaced in northern Afghanistan reporting a large number of displacement, forced migration and racial discrimination or racial prejudice.     Because of fear of other ethnic communities, among Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks, there is highly provocative ethnic tension in Afghan culture that lead xenophobic environment.  Disappointment, anxiety, and uncertainty and cultural trauma in everyday life among Afghans are common phenomenon as a result of these issues most of Afghans leaving to the other continents; America, Europe and Australia as legal and illegal immigrants.

         
References 
Chimni, B S, 2000  - International Refugee Law, New Delhi: Sage.
CRG, 2004 -  Compendium, the second annual CRG winter course on forced migration, immigration, racism and xenophobia: photocopied material
Goldberg, David Theo, 1993 -  Racist culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning. Oxford: Blackwell.
Harris, Leonard, ed, 1998 -  The Concept of Racism. New York: Humanities.
Samaddar, R, ed, 2003 - Refugee and the State. New Delhi: Sage